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The revolutions of 1848–49 in the German states, the opening phase of which was also called the March Revolution ((ドイツ語:Märzrevolution)), were initially part of the Revolutions of 1848 that broke out in many European countries. They were a series of loosely coordinated protests and rebellions in the states of the German Confederation, including the Austrian Empire. The revolutions, which stressed pan-Germanism, demonstrated popular discontent with the traditional, largely autocratic political structure of the thirty-nine independent states of the Confederation that inherited the German territory of the former Holy Roman Empire. They demonstrated the popular desire for the Zollverein movement. The middle-class elements were committed to liberal principles, while the working class sought radical improvements to their working and living conditions. As the middle class and working class components of the Revolution split, the conservative aristocracy defeated it. Liberals were forced into exile to escape political persecution, where they became known as Forty-Eighters. Many immigrated to the United States, settling from Wisconsin to Texas. ==Events leading up to the revolutions== The groundwork of the 1848 uprising in Germany was laid long beforehand. The Hambacher Fest of 1832, for instance, reflected growing unrest in the face of heavy taxation and political censorship. The Hambacher Fest is noteworthy for the republicans adopting the black-red-gold colours (used on today's national flag of Germany) as a symbol of the republican movement and of unity among the German-speaking people. Activism for liberal reform spread through many of the German states, each of which had distinct revolutions. They were also inspired by street demonstrations of workers and artisans in Paris, France, from February 22 through 24, 1848, which resulted in the abdication by King Louis Philippe of France and his going into exile in Britain.〔S. Z. Leviova, "Foreword", to ''The Revolution of 1848: Articles from the Neue Rheinische Zeitung'' by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels (International Publishers: New York, 1972) p. 7.〕 In France the revolution of 1848 became known as the February Revolution. The revolutions spread across Europe; they erupted in Austria and Germany, beginning with the large demonstrations on March 13, 1848, in Vienna. This resulted in the resignation of Prince von Metternich as chief minister to Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria, and his going into exile in Britain.〔 Because of the date of the Vienna demonstrations, the revolutions in Germany are usually called the March Revolution (German: ''Märzrevolution''). Fearing the fate of Louis-Philippe of France, some monarchs in Germany accepted some of the demands of the revolutionaries, at least temporarily. In the south and west, large popular assemblies and mass demonstrations took place. They demanded freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, written constitutions, arming of the people, and a parliament. ==Austria== (詳細はHoly Roman Empire, which had been dissolved by Napoleon in 1806, and was not resurrected by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. German Austrian chancellor Metternich had dominated Austrian politics from 1815 until 1848. On March 13, 1848 university students mounted a large street demonstration in Vienna, and it was covered by the press across the German-speaking states. Following the important, but relatively minor, demonstrations against Lola Montez in Bavaria on February 9, 1848 (see below), the first major revolt of 1848 in German lands occurred in Vienna on March 13, 1848.〔Marshall Dill, ''Germany: A Modern History'' (University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor, 1970), pp. 104-105.〕 The demonstrating students in Vienna had been restive and were encouraged by a sermon of Anton Füster, a liberal priest, on Sunday, March 12, 1848 in their university chapel.〔 The student demonstrators demanded a constitution and a constituent assembly elected by universal male suffrage.〔Priscilla Robertson, ''Revolutions of 1848: A Social History'' (1952), pp 188-205〕 Emperor Ferdinand and his chief advisor Metternich directed troops to crush the demonstration. When demonstrators moved to the streets near the palace, the troops fired on the students, killing several.〔 The new working class of Vienna joined the student demonstrations, developing an armed insurrection. The Diet of Lower Austria demanded Metternich's resignation. With no forces rallying to Metternich's defense, Ferdinand reluctantly complied and dismissed him. The former chancellor went into exile in London.〔Dill (1970), ''Germany,'' p. 106.〕 Ferdinand appointed new, nominally liberal, ministers. The Austrian government drafted a constitution in late April 1848.〔 The people rejected this, as the majority was denied the right to vote. The citizens of Vienna returned to the streets from May 26 through 27, 1848, erecting barricades to prepare for an army offense. Ferdinand and his family fled to Innsbruck, where they spent the next few months surrounded by the loyal peasantry of the Tyrol.〔 Ferdinand issued two manifestos on May 16, 1848 and June 3, 1848, which gave concessions to the people. He converted the Imperial Diet into a Constituent Assembly to be elected by the people.〔Robertson, ''Revolutions of 1848: A Social History'' (1952), pp 206-36〕 Other concessions were less substantial, and generally addressed the reorganizing and unification of Germany.〔 Ferdinand returned to Vienna from Innsbruck on August 12, 1848.〔Marx and Engels, Note 264, ''Collected Works, Vol. 7'', p. 637.〕 Soon after his return, the working-class populace hit the streets again on August 21, 1848 to protest high unemployment and the government's decree to reduce wages. On August 23, 1848, Austrian troops opened fire on unarmed demonstrators and shot several.〔 In late September 1848, Emperor Ferdinand, who was also King Ferdinand V of Hungary, decided to send Austrian and Croatian troops to Hungary to crush a democratic rebellion there.〔Marx and Engels (1977), ''Collected Works, Vol. 7'', Note 298, pp. 642-643.〕 On September 29, 1848 the Austrian troops were defeated by the Hungarian revolutionary forces. On October 6 through 7, 1848, the citizens of Vienna had demonstrated against the emperor's actions against forces in Hungary.〔"Revolution in Vienna," ''Collected Works, Vol. 7'', p. 457.〕 As a result, Emperor Ferdinand I fled Vienna on October 7, 1848, taking up residence in the fortress town of Olomouc in Moravia, in the eastern empire.〔''Collected Works, Vol.7'', Note 298, p. 643.〕 On December 2, 1848, Ferdinand abdicated in favour of his nephew Franz Joseph.〔Alan Sked, ''The Survival of the Habsburg Empire: Radetzky, the Imperial Army and the Class War, 1848'' (1979)〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「The revolutions of 1848–49 in the German states, the opening phase of which was also called the March Revolution ((ドイツ語:Märzrevolution)), were initially part of the Revolutions of 1848 that broke out in many European countries. They were a series of loosely coordinated protests and rebellions in the states of the German Confederation, including the Austrian Empire. The revolutions, which stressed pan-Germanism, demonstrated popular discontent with the traditional, largely autocratic political structure of the thirty-nine independent states of the Confederation that inherited the German territory of the former Holy Roman Empire. They demonstrated the popular desire for the Zollverein movement.The middle-class elements were committed to liberal principles, while the working class sought radical improvements to their working and living conditions. As the middle class and working class components of the Revolution split, the conservative aristocracy defeated it. Liberals were forced into exile to escape political persecution, where they became known as Forty-Eighters. Many immigrated to the United States, settling from Wisconsin to Texas.==Events leading up to the revolutions==The groundwork of the 1848 uprising in Germany was laid long beforehand. The Hambacher Fest of 1832, for instance, reflected growing unrest in the face of heavy taxation and political censorship. The Hambacher Fest is noteworthy for the republicans adopting the black-red-gold colours (used on today's national flag of Germany) as a symbol of the republican movement and of unity among the German-speaking people.Activism for liberal reform spread through many of the German states, each of which had distinct revolutions. They were also inspired by street demonstrations of workers and artisans in Paris, France, from February 22 through 24, 1848, which resulted in the abdication by King Louis Philippe of France and his going into exile in Britain.S. Z. Leviova, "Foreword", to ''The Revolution of 1848: Articles from the Neue Rheinische Zeitung'' by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels (International Publishers: New York, 1972) p. 7. In France the revolution of 1848 became known as the February Revolution.The revolutions spread across Europe; they erupted in Austria and Germany, beginning with the large demonstrations on March 13, 1848, in Vienna. This resulted in the resignation of Prince von Metternich as chief minister to Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria, and his going into exile in Britain. Because of the date of the Vienna demonstrations, the revolutions in Germany are usually called the March Revolution (German: ''Märzrevolution'').Fearing the fate of Louis-Philippe of France, some monarchs in Germany accepted some of the demands of the revolutionaries, at least temporarily. In the south and west, large popular assemblies and mass demonstrations took place. They demanded freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, written constitutions, arming of the people, and a parliament.==Austria== (詳細はRevolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areasを参照)In 1848, Austria was the predominant German state. It was considered the successor to the Holy Roman Empire, which had been dissolved by Napoleon in 1806, and was not resurrected by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. German Austrian chancellor Metternich had dominated Austrian politics from 1815 until 1848.On March 13, 1848 university students mounted a large street demonstration in Vienna, and it was covered by the press across the German-speaking states. Following the important, but relatively minor, demonstrations against Lola Montez in Bavaria on February 9, 1848 (see below), the first major revolt of 1848 in German lands occurred in Vienna on March 13, 1848.Marshall Dill, ''Germany: A Modern History'' (University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor, 1970), pp. 104-105. The demonstrating students in Vienna had been restive and were encouraged by a sermon of Anton Füster, a liberal priest, on Sunday, March 12, 1848 in their university chapel. The student demonstrators demanded a constitution and a constituent assembly elected by universal male suffrage.Priscilla Robertson, ''Revolutions of 1848: A Social History'' (1952), pp 188-205Emperor Ferdinand and his chief advisor Metternich directed troops to crush the demonstration. When demonstrators moved to the streets near the palace, the troops fired on the students, killing several. The new working class of Vienna joined the student demonstrations, developing an armed insurrection. The Diet of Lower Austria demanded Metternich's resignation. With no forces rallying to Metternich's defense, Ferdinand reluctantly complied and dismissed him. The former chancellor went into exile in London.Dill (1970), ''Germany,'' p. 106.Ferdinand appointed new, nominally liberal, ministers. The Austrian government drafted a constitution in late April 1848. The people rejected this, as the majority was denied the right to vote. The citizens of Vienna returned to the streets from May 26 through 27, 1848, erecting barricades to prepare for an army offense. Ferdinand and his family fled to Innsbruck, where they spent the next few months surrounded by the loyal peasantry of the Tyrol. Ferdinand issued two manifestos on May 16, 1848 and June 3, 1848, which gave concessions to the people. He converted the Imperial Diet into a Constituent Assembly to be elected by the people.Robertson, ''Revolutions of 1848: A Social History'' (1952), pp 206-36 Other concessions were less substantial, and generally addressed the reorganizing and unification of Germany.Ferdinand returned to Vienna from Innsbruck on August 12, 1848.Marx and Engels, Note 264, ''Collected Works, Vol. 7'', p. 637. Soon after his return, the working-class populace hit the streets again on August 21, 1848 to protest high unemployment and the government's decree to reduce wages. On August 23, 1848, Austrian troops opened fire on unarmed demonstrators and shot several.In late September 1848, Emperor Ferdinand, who was also King Ferdinand V of Hungary, decided to send Austrian and Croatian troops to Hungary to crush a democratic rebellion there.Marx and Engels (1977), ''Collected Works, Vol. 7'', Note 298, pp. 642-643. On September 29, 1848 the Austrian troops were defeated by the Hungarian revolutionary forces. On October 6 through 7, 1848, the citizens of Vienna had demonstrated against the emperor's actions against forces in Hungary."Revolution in Vienna," ''Collected Works, Vol. 7'', p. 457. As a result, Emperor Ferdinand I fled Vienna on October 7, 1848, taking up residence in the fortress town of Olomouc in Moravia, in the eastern empire.''Collected Works, Vol.7'', Note 298, p. 643. On December 2, 1848, Ferdinand abdicated in favour of his nephew Franz Joseph.Alan Sked, ''The Survival of the Habsburg Empire: Radetzky, the Imperial Army and the Class War, 1848'' (1979)」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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